DEFENCE – ARMED SERVICES: ARMY, NEW ZEALAND

After the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on 6 February 1840, no specific arrangements were made for the defence of the colonists. Early hopes of peaceful relations between Maori and Pakeha soon faded and, among other factors, the absence of a strong British military force acted as a continued source of provocation to some Maori chiefs. The Maoris were an intelligent and warlike race, organised as tribes, and experienced in the use of firearms, and they heavily outnumbered the 11,000 or so Europeans grouped in seven coastal settlements. Friction arose principally over land claims, and the first clash, the “Wairau Affray” occurred in the South Island on 17 June 1843, when Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata opposed a party of Nelson (New Zealand Company) surveyors and settlers and killed 22 of them. The encounter had unfortunate repercussions. Trouble soon spread to North Auckland where there were local land disputes, aggravated by a decline in trade consequent upon Hobson's decision to transfer the capital to Auckland. Maori discontent was widespread and Hone Heke felt emboldened to show his defiance of British authority. On 8 July 1844 Hone Heke and Kawiti led a well armed force which sacked Kororareka after a sharp encounter with soldiers and sailors from HMS Hazard and volunteer civilians.

The New Zealand Army (which owes its genesis to this outbreak) has seen many changes of form in its short history. At first it consisted of militia battalions formed in Auckland, Wellington, and Nelson, where settlers feared Maori attacks. Then, after a period of comparative peace, there was a resurgence of militia activity; the growth of a volunteer force; the establishment of special groups in the later Maori Wars; their disbanding when peace was restored; the formation of an armed constabulary from which stemmed the Permanent or Regular Force; and, finally, the establishment of the Territorial Force. The Army's Regular component has always been small, but underlying all policies there is the concept of a “citizen army”, a force that, with good leadership, training, and equipment, has been the equal of any professional army. In the beginning reliance was placed on experienced officers who had served in British regiments in many parts of the world, and ever since there has been considerable dependence upon British advice.

The principal concern of the early colonists was to create a new life for themselves, and only as a last resort were they prepared to take up arms against troublesome Maoris. It was considered to be the British Government's responsibility to provide troops for internal defence and security. At first the Imperial authorities accepted this by assuming full responsibility both for Maori affairs and for defence. After the attainment of self-government, and on the outbreak of war in 1860, the colony was expected to subsidise British troops in New Zealand and to supplement these by locally raised forces. British regiments bore the brunt of the fighting in the Maori Wars at least until the mid-1860s.

The Militia

The general alarm in Auckland and elsewhere at Hone Heke's rebellion led the Legislative Council, on 25 March 1845, to pass the first Militia Ordinance. This provided that all able-bodied European males between 18 and 65 years of age were to hold themselves ready for service and for a period of 28 days' training annually. It was, essentially, a home force, in that service was limited to within 25 miles from the local police office. The Governor was empowered to make regulations and to “draw out” militia units for service. A small detachment of volunteers of the Auckland Militia Battalion served as pioneers and gunners with the British forces in the operations against Hone Heke. Rolls were compiled annually between 1846 and 1853 in the Auckland district, and most settlers were armed and underwent training. In 1845 and 1846, in Wellington, the local militia constructed and manned redoubts at Thorndon and in the Hutt Valley. These companies took part in most of the local skirmishes. A battalion was formed at Nelson, but this saw no military service. For arms, militiamen used flintlock muskets—weapons that had originally been imported for bartering to the Maoris. Uniform consisted of “blue shirt, a cap similar to that worn by sailors, and any kind of trousers”. In 1847 an Ordinance regulated the raising of native levies, who were to be under the same discipline as European troops. The Government had an abstract of the relevant Ordinances and Orders translated into Maori and copies were given to every native who enlisted. Maoris served throughout the wars in the 1860s, generally in tribal groups, or as members of the European volunteer forces.

Apart from a small outbreak near Wanganui in 1847 (which was attended to by Imperial troops) there was little militia activity for some years. In 1854 a dispute between rival Maori factions over land sales led to an engagement near New Plymouth. These skirmishes lasted for some time and the settlers, confined as they were to a narrow coastal strip, felt threatened. On 12 November 1855, 400 New Plymouth settlers were “drawn out” and ordered “to do constant militia duty until further orders”. Shortly after this militiamen were issued with a complete blue serge uniform. The pattern remained unchanged throughout the Maori Wars, until 1872.

In 1858 a Militia Act, similar to the 1845 Ordinance, was passed by the New Zealand Parliament. In this, militiamen were allowed (at their own expense) to find substitutes, and provision was made for forming special volunteer units. Exempted from militia service, volunteers were required to serve anywhere in New Zealand. The country was divided into militia districts, and a permanent staff (one officer, two non-commissioned officers, and a bugler) was provided in each. These were to train all militia and volunteer units in their district. So great was the number of new units that on 19 August 1859 Captain H. C. Balneavis, an ex-Imperial officer, was appointed Deputy Adjutant-General, Militia and Volunteers, with his headquarters at Auckland. Until 1872 the North Island Militia were frequently called for “actual service”. They were employed as garrisons, sometimes on frontier outposts, and in a few minor skirmishes. On 28 March 1860 part of the New Plymouth Battalion and volunteers were in action at Waireka. Garrison duty, however, was the usual service and, from the nature of the force, its spasmodic training, and limited territorial liability, this was probably the most useful task it could perform.

Colonial Defence Force, Special Forces, and the Armed Constabulary

After the outbreak of the war in 1860 the Government decided that special forces would have to be raised to take over the responsibility for restoring peace. In 1864 the Weld Ministry proposed its “self reliant” policy, the substance of which was that New Zealand should dispense with the Imperial troops for which they were paying an annual capitation of £40. Reliance would instead be placed on local forces and on Maori auxiliaries. This policy was gradually accepted by the Government, though not without serious difficulties with the Colonial Office. But by 1870 the last British regiment had left New Zealand.

The Colonial Defence Act of 1862 authorised the formation of the first Regular Force, a mounted body, not to exceed 500 men, enrolment being voluntary and for a three-year period of service. Maoris as well as Europeans were eligible, and officers and non-commissioned officers were appointed by the Governor. Of divisions formed in Auckland, Napier, and Wellington, the Auckland Division, under Lieutenant-Colonel M. G. Nixon, played a significant role during the Waikato Wars and, later, saw action in the Bay of Plenty. The Napier Division took part in several skirmishes, but the Wellington Division was never in action.

Special forces were raised to meet the Maoris in their own element—the bush. They searched out Maori war parties, acted as scouts, and protected the Imperial troops' lines of communications. The first such force of 50 men, raised by Major H. A. Atkinson, was known as the Taranaki Bush Rangers. The most famous unit, however, was the Forest Rangers, the first company of which was formed in August 1863 under Major W. Jackson. Towards the end of that year a second company was formed under Major Von Tempsky. The rangers were armed with breech-loading Calisher and Terry carbines, a five-shot revolver, and (in Von Tempsky's company) with bowie-knives—particularly useful for slashing a way through bush. Rangers were enrolled for three months and were given high rates of pay. Their guerilla tactics became so effective that their name was soon feared by the rebels.

The Government also recruited bodies of military settlers who were not only to put down rebellion but were also to settle on the frontier areas afterwards. This idea had already been tried in 1847–48 when four settlements of British ex-Regulars (the “Fencibles”) were established near Auckland. Further, the Government, in 1863, recruited men from the South Island and from Australia to form a special militia. These were offered a grant of confiscated Maori land upon the fulfilment of certain obligations. They were to serve in the field until discharged, take up the land allotted to them, erect stockades in townships, remain on their land for three years, and undergo certain military training. Four Waikato militia regiments were raised (about 2,500 men) and saw service in the Waikato and East Coast districts. Similar units were formed in Taranaki, Wanganui, and Hawke's Bay.

By the end of 1867 it became clear that the severest fighting was over and, accordingly, all these special groups were disbanded on 22 October 1867. The Colonial Defence Force ceased on the passing of the Armed Constabulary Act of 1867, but continuity was preserved because many members of the one transferred to the other. The new force, under a Commandant (equivalent to a Lieutenant-Colonel in the Militia), combined military with police functions. At its strongest there were nine divisions (including two Maori divisions), each comprising 60 to 80 men. From 1868 until 1872 the Armed Constabulary, helped by volunteer regiments, undertook the pursuit of Te Kooti. The force's other duties included patrolling and manning redoubts in the Waikato, Taupo, Wairoa (Hawke's Bay), and Taranaki districts. In between times the Armed Constabulary engaged in public works. It retained its dual role until 1883 when it was divided into two branches—the Police and the Field Force. Approximately 600 men remained in the latter, but, as native districts stayed tranquil, this number was later reduced. Men withdrawn from district garrisons were employed in constructing harbour defences or were transferred to the Police.

Volunteers and the Special Reports Era

The Volunteers were created by the Militia Act of 1858, and continued until 1910. Under the first regulations service was for one year and members undertook to serve anywhere in New Zealand. As almost every settlement formed its corps it became necessary to appoint a Deputy Adjutant-General. Few Volunteer units took part in campaigns between 1860 and 1865. After 1865 small parties of volunteers participated against Titokowaru in Taranaki. Small corps, subsequently disbanded, were formed for specific duties. Acts passed in 1865, 1881, and 1886 varied the force's central organisation, but a provision which permitted units to elect their own officers, remained until 1910. The force consisted of infantry, cavalry, and artillery; each corps' strength fluctuated between 40 and 100 men, and the total strength was stabilised at about 6,600. An annual capitation grant, which varied from year to year, was paid for every officer and efficient volunteer. The corps' commander was sole judge of a volunteer's competence—in spite of the fact that his own competence might be doubtful. There was no training syllabus prescribed. Corps drilled sporadically, and in many cases left their drill halls only for ceremonial parades. Dress regulations permitted such differences in uniforms that no two corps dressed alike.

This was an era of special reports, but recommendations were seldom adopted. Opinion in these reports generally favoured smaller forces trained to higher efficiency and equipped with modern weapons. Reporting officers praised the fine spirit of the men but said the force lacked proper direction. In 1874 Major W. Gordon condemned the system as “inefficient, lax, and wasteful”: armament was varied and obsolete, instructors were unqualified and lacked manuals, and the election of officers was severely criticised. Nothing was done, however, and for many years the volunteer system continued unchanged.

Two Russian scares, however, compelled the Government to look to the country's preparedness, and in 1880 Colonel Scratchley reported on the coastal defences. He recommended that Auckland. Wellington, Lyttelton, and Dunedin harbours be fortified and that these ports be manned by regular troops assisted by special volunteer corps. Armament was to consist of guns, mines, torpedoes, and searchlights. The Volunteers were to be reorganised as a small field force centred upon the ports. Two years later the Government implemented this report, and by March 1888 about £428,000 had been spent on coastal defences. In 1885 Sir G. S. Whitmore became Commandant of the New Zealand Forces. He directed his efforts towards the training of suitable officers and established a Central School of Instruction with branches at the three main centres. Whitmore also created the nucleus for a defence organisation to control the separate corps.

In 1892 Commandant Lieutenant-Colonel Fox reported exhaustively upon Volunteer Corps and their officers. This report caused a tremendous press controversy as his only commendatory remark about the force was that spirit was excellent; he considered that no interest was taken in its welfare and that there was no dependable system. Fox resigned, but continued until 1896 as Inspector and Adviser to the Minister. To some extent Fox's report produced gradual improvement of efficiency. Obsolete equipment was replaced, capitation was increased, drill manuals were issued, and rifle corps were reorganised as battalions.

In 1899 New Zealand's participation in the South African War gave the Volunteers a stimulus, and 10 contingents of mounted rifles went overseas. Public interest was reflected in the strength attained by the local Volunteer regiments (17,000 men). The cavalry was reorganised in battalions, Lee-Enfield rifles were imported, a national “Karkee” uniform was adopted, and in 1901 the School of Instruction was re-established. In the seven years following Major-General Babington's appointment (1902) training procedures were standardised and the principle was accepted that permanent instructors should train officers and non-commissioned officers, who, in turn, would train their own men. Problems due to election of officers, the lack of sufficiently trained staff officers, and the low standards of personnel efficiency remained, and difficulty was experienced in arranging for men to attend camps and parades. New Zealand still lacked an effective army in 1906. On his retirement Babington recommended reorganisation, and complained that the colony did not take its defence seriously. His criticisms led to the creation of a Defence Council, which assumed the Commandant's functions. Some improvements were made. Gradually the regiments obtained permanent adjutants, instructors were provided for artillery, engineers, signals, and infantry, and, for the first time, provision was made to mobilise an expeditionary force.

Enthusiasm did not improve, however, and the Defence Council's first report contained the warning that “volunteering has had its last chance” and that the only practicable alternative was compulsory military training. Meanwhile public attention was being aroused by international events, and arguments in favour of more adequate defence arrangements began to be heard. The Defence Act of 1909 replaced the old Volunteer Force by a Territorial Force recruited by compulsory military service.

The Territorial Force

The principal features of the new system were the replacement of the Defence Council by a Commandant and an establishment of 30,000 men, to be recruited compulsorily. A heavy training programme was undertaken and British instructors arrived to create the new army. In 1910 Major-General Sir Alexander Godley became General Officer Commanding. To meet the need for staff officers and instructors the New Zealand Staff Corps and the New Zealand Permanent Staff were formed in 1911. The new Staff Corps was filled initially by commissioning ex-Regular and Volunteer officers, and arrangements were made for training up to 10 cadets annually at the Royal Military College, Duntroon. General Headquarters was expanded, and a Dominion section of the Imperial General Staff was formed for the purpose of keeping New Zealand abreast of developments overseas, for preparing war establishments and plans for mobilisation, and, generally, for giving effect to Imperial cooperation in defence matters.

The nature of the regular elements was also determined. Officers and non-commissioned officers assumed responsibility for instruction, unit administration, and the manning of camps; and all regimental officers and non-commissioned officers for the Territorials were selected from the ranks, trained, and given control of their own units. As a result of increased staff, instructional courses were instituted for Territorial officers, and these in turn, resulted in an increase of efficiency. On the outbreak of war in 1914 New Zealand offered Britain an expeditionary force. The Territorial Force was not mobilised, but territorial distinctions were preserved and each military district contributed troops. By the terms of the Defence Act, only volunteers could serve overseas, and men offered in sufficient numbers to fill the “Main Body” of 8,427 men and to supply reinforcements for the next two years. During the war the territorial system continued to function.

After the war, efforts were directed from defence to resettlement problems Compulsory military training was suspended until 1921 when it was resumed on a modified scale. Defence expenditure was cut and cadets ceased to attend Duntroon. In 1921 the Signal Corps was detached from the New Zealand Engineers and, in the following year, the Permanent Army Service Corps was formed. This consisted of “other ranks” only, and drew its officers from the Staff Corps. By 1925 more funds were available and annual Territorial camps were again held. The force now comprised 21,000 men, and steps were taken to strengthen the Staff Corps and Permanent Staff whose ranks had been reduced after the war. This revival was brief, for in 1930 the Government decided to suspend the compulsory clause of the Defence Act. Territorial service became voluntary and strength dropped from 16,990 to 3,655. The Regular Force was reduced, the Army Pay Corps disbanded, and many personnel from the Army Ordnance Corps were transferred to the civilian staff. The Territorial Force was set at 10,000, as compared with 16,000 under compulsory military training. After 1932 strength slowly built up to 7,000 men, although attendances at camps and parades remained poor. Progressive training was impossible and low numbers prevented officers from obtaining experience of handling large bodies of troops. These factors all militated against efficiency. With the return of more prosperous tunes recruitment for the Permanent Staff recommenced and, in 1934, after a lapse of 12 years, senior officers again attended overseas courses.

In 1937–38, a Council of Defence was formed to coordinate the activities of the three services and to advise the Government on defence policy. An Army Board, consisting of the Minister, three military members, and the Army Secretary (formerly the Under-Secretary for Defence) was charged with the control and administration of the Army. The “General Officer Commanding” was replaced by the “Chief of the General Staff”, and the three military “Commands” (Northern, Central, and Southern) became “Districts”. The Territorial Force was reorganised in order to make establishments consistent with the number of men volunteering, and emphasis was placed on training leaders to enable rapid expansion to meet any emergency. Army schools were opened, training methods and facilities were improved, and artillery and infantry units began to be mechanised. By 1939 the Regular and Territorial Forces' strengths had risen to 593 and 10,364 respectively, but, with war imminent, the Government authorised the latter to be increased to 16,000 men. On the outbreak of war Cabinet promised all possible support to Britain and, on 6 September 1939, authorised the mobilisation of a 6,000–strong volunteer “Special Force” for service overseas. Recruits for this—the First Echelon—entered camp in November. This First Echelon, (approximately one-third of a division) became the nucleus of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force which left New Zealand on 6 January 1940, being followed by the Second Echelon on 2 May, and by the Third on 27 August. Fifty-five Regular Force officers and 207 other ranks were posted for duty with the Expeditionary Force.

The Territorial Force was kept intact within New Zealand and by the end of 1940 numbered 15,449 men. Other measures for home defence included manning coastal and anti-aircraft batteries, garrisoning ports, coast watching, and maintaining a mobile striking force in each military district. Construction of military camps and other installations proceeded rapidly. A camp was established at Papakura, and Trentham and Burnham camps were extended. Waiouru, formerly a part-time Territorials' camp, was improved to the extent that, in January 1941, troops were able to move in.

When New Zealand declared war on Japan in December 1941 a brigade stationed in Fiji was strengthened and became the nucleus of the Third New Zealand Division. Home-defence measures were intensified and the Territorials were mobilised for war. The Home Guard, originally a civilian organisation, became an integral part of the military forces on 30 July 1941, and the National Military Reserve, formerly a Territorial Reserve, were also incorporated and mobilised. In October 1942 the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps was constituted part of the New Zealand Defence Forces, and members later served in the Middle East, Pacific, and on hospital ships. By mid-1943 successes against the Japanese made it possible to reduce home-defence forces, and by the end of the year the Home Guard was placed on the Reserve. Until the end of the war the Army's role in New Zealand was confined to training troops for service overseas and guarding and supplying war materials for use in France, Germany, Italy, and Burma.

After the war the Expeditionary Forces and home services were progressively demobilised and the Army was reorganised on a peacetime basis. The Regular and Territorial Forces were integrated to form one New Zealand Army—a term first used officially in the Army Act of 1950, which superseded the Defence Act of 1909. Integration meant that, henceforth, members both of Regular and of Territorial Forces were posted to the same corps, and that the New Zealand Staff Corps, the New Zealand Permanent Staff, and the New Zealand Permanent Army Service Corps were disbanded. At this time a Corps of Infantry was formed.

In February 1948, prior to the reintroduction of compulsory military training, the Government authorised the Regular Force to be expanded to 3,747, but by 1949 only 2,568 men had enlisted. Provision was made to enlist youths 16 and 18 years of age as Regular Force cadets at a Regular Force Cadet School now at Waiouru. This school was established to give special training in military, academic, and trade subjects in order to supply the Army's future requirements for instructors and skilled tradesmen. In 1958, when the Government decided that compulsory military training was no longer flexible enough for New Zealand's defence commitments in South-East Asia, Cabinet decided that the New Zealand Army should consist of a static Regular Force of 2,500, an operational Regular Brigade Group (including an armoured regiment) with an establishment of approximately 5,600 men available for immediate service, and a volunteer Territorial Force of 7,000 men.

Post-War Forces Employed Overseas

Since the end of the war New Zealand has supplied forces for overseas services in Japan, Korea, and Malaya. A New Zealand contingent (Jayforce) formed part of the British Commonwealth Force in Japan from 1946 to 1948. The original members of the Force, numbering nearly 4,300 men and drawn from Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, were repatriated to New Zealand in July 1946, their places being taken by volunteers who enlisted for 12 months' service. In 1947 a further relief of personnel took place, and for various reasons the Force was reduced to 2,400. New Zealand's part in the occupation ended in 1948 with the return of all personnel.

As a signatory of the Charter of the United Nations, New Zealand has a general obligation to cooperate with other members in the prevention of aggression and the maintenance of peace. Thus, as the result of an appeal from the Secretary-General of the United Nations for assistance in operations in Korea against the Chinese, New Zealand supplied a special combat force for service with other United Nations ground forces. The force, a volunteer one of 1,044 men, consisting of a regiment of artillery and auxiliary units, sailed for Korea in December 1950. Early in 1951 British Commonwealth troops serving in Korea were integrated into a Commonwealth Division, and the New Zealand Government agreed to contribute other personnel for the Division, mainly in the form of Army Service Corps, and Kayforce served in the field until 1954. The last elements returned to New Zealand in 1957.

In June 1955 a Special Air Service Squadron was raised for service in the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve in South-East Asia. The Squadron, consisting of 133 men selected from civilian volunteers for a high degree of physical and mental fitness, was stationed in Malaya as part of the British 22nd Special Air Service Regiment. The Commanding Officer and other officers were selected from the Regular Force and, after preliminary training in New Zealand, the Squadron received its basic parachute training in Singapore. In November-December 1957 the Squadron returned to New Zealand and was disbanded. In the same year an infantry battalion (1 Battalion, New Zealand Regiment) was recruited and dispatched to Malaya in November, and commenced operations against the terrorists in March 1958. The original force was replaced at the end of 1959 by another battalion of 725 men, which in turn was replaced by the original battalion at the end of 1961.

In mid–1962 a small detachment of one Special Air Service Squadron served in Thailand for three months.

by Richard Ainslie Barber, N.Z.L.A.CERT., Librarian, Army Department, Wellington.

The Army Today

The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the New Zealand Army Act 1950, and consists of the Regular Force, the Territorial Force, the Army Reserve, the Cadet Corps, and other military forces raised in time of war or other like emergency.

The Army comprises the following corps:

• Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery.

• Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

• Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers.

• Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.

• Royal New Zealand Infantry Corps.

• New Zealand Special Air Service.

• New Zealand Army Air Corps.

• Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

• Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

• Royal New Zealand Ordnance Corps.

• Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

• Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.

• Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.

• New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

• New Zealand Army Legal Service.

• Royal New Zealand Provost Corps

• New Zealand Army Education Corps.

• Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

• New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.

• New Zealand Cadet Corps.

In general, these corps derive from similar groups within the British Army and the old permanent establishment. Since 1947 many corps have been designated “Royal”.

Command and Organisation

The Army Board consists of the Minister of Defence (President); the Chief of the General Staff (First Military Member); the Adjutant-General (Second Military Member); the Quartermaster-General (Third Military Member); the Army Secretary; and a Territorial Officer (Associate Member). The Board is charged with the administration and the command of the Army. In 1964 the New Zealand Army was reorganised as: (a) A contribution to the British Commonwealth Strategic Reserve which is all Regular Force, a battalion of which is in Malaya, (b) A Combat Brigade Group, with its own light aviation unit, and a Logistic Support Force, totalling approximately 9,000 men, comprising integrated Regular Force and Territorial units. (c) A combat reserve brigade group of approximately 3,000 Territorial personnel. These elements constitute the Field Force. An all-Regular Force Static Support Force of approximately 2,950 is provided to command, administer, train, and equip the Army as a whole, including the New Zealand Cadet Corps. This reorganisation is being achieved within the present limit of 6,250 Regular and 10,000 Territorial Force soldiers, a total of 16,250 men. Many Regular Force and Territorial Force units have merged. As a result of the reorganisation, it was necessary to revise the traditional infantry regimental system and the 10 regiments have been combined into one regiment of infantry, to which all seven Regular and Territorial Force battalions will belong.

New Zealand is divided into three military districts and each headquarters is responsible for the Territorial Brigade Group and Regular Field Force units located in the district. These districts are: Northern Military District (1st Infantry Brigade Group) the northern half of the North Island; Central Military District (2nd Infantry Brigade Group) the southern half of the North Island; and Southern Military District (3rd Infantry Brigade Group) the whole of the South Island, including the Chatham and Stewart Islands. Each district is divided into four army areas, each with two or more sub-areas. The District (Brigade Group) Commander commands all units, both Regular and Territorial, located in his district.

Training

Except in the case of special entries and of quartermaster officers commissioned from the ranks, all Regular officers are commissioned on graduation from the Royal Academy, Sandhurst, England; the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Australia; or from the Officer Cadet School, Portsea, Australia. Postgraduate and specialist training is given either in New Zealand or at overseas training establishments. Officers are sent overseas for training at staff colleges in England, Australia, and the United States. Candidates for the Staff College, Camberley, England, and the Australian Staff College, Queenscliffe, must pass the same entrance examinations as British Regular officers except for military law, administration, and morale, upon which candidates are examined in New Zealand. Regular soldiers are trained in New Zealand or, in special cases, at overseas establishments.

Under the National Military Service Act 1961, a selective system of national service was introduced for the Territorial Force. Those selected undergo a medical examination and, allowing for appeals and deferments, the balance (approximately 2,000 per year) are enrolled in the Army for 14 weeks' full-time training before being posted to the Territorial Force for three years' part-time service and a further three years in the Reserve, with no liability for training. Part-time service consists of 20 days' training a year, including 14 days in camp and 6 days' out-of-camp training. The 14 weeks' full-time training is carried out largely at Waiouru. Those selected have the option of serving in the Regular Force for a year, followed by three years in the General Reserve, with no further training.

The Army Schools' headquarters, Waiouru, administer a number of schools which provide courses for all ranks of the Regular Force and officers and non-commissioned officers of the Territorial Force and the New Zealand Cadet Corps. The schools include the Tactical School, School of Army Administration, School of Artillery, School of Armour, School of Signals, School of Infantry, Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps School, Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical School, Regular Force Cadet Unit, and the Regular Force Cadet School. In addition, the Regular Force Depot provides basic courses for all arms of the Regular Force, including Regular Force cadets. Other training establishments, the School of Military Engineering, the Medical Corps Depot, and the Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps School are situated at other camps, but fulfil similar functions.

New Zealand Cadet Corps

There are 182 secondary schools with cadet units, each unit bearing the school's name. Service is voluntary and annual training is set at 30 hours. All units are infantry, but provision is made for such specialist activities as sea cadets, artillery troops, and air training corps. Courses for officers and noncommissioned officers are held at district training camps and units may hold annual camps or barracks.

The New Zealand Army in Malaya

In accordance with New Zealand's undertaking to make a contribution to the British Commonwealth Strategic Reserve in Malaya, an infantry battalion, the First Battalion the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment, on a peace establishment is at present serving with the Commonwealth Brigade Group there. The period of duty for personnel is two years.

Strength of the Army

The strength of the Army on 30 September 1963 was as follows:

Ministry of Defence

In 1963 a Ministry of Defence was established, headed by a Secretary, to act as a coordinating defence authority to advise the Government on policy, planning, and expenditure. The Secretary is Chairman of the Defence Board, comprising the chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, the three Service Chiefs, the Secretary to the Treasury, and the Secretary of External Affairs.

The separate entities of the three Service Departments are maintained and administered by their respective Boards.

by Richard Ainslie Barber, N.Z.L.A.CERT., Librarian, Army Department, Wellington.

• Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives, Defence Department Annual Reports (H. 19 of each year)
• The War Effort of New Zealand, Drew, H. T. B. (1923)
• The New Zealand Wars and the Pioneering Period, Cowan, J. (2 vols., 1955)
• Hone Heke's Rebellion, 1844–6, Rutherford, J. (Auckland University College Bulletin No. 34, 1947)
• Cambridge History of the British Empire, Vol. 7, Part 2, New Zealand (1933)
• Journal of the Royal United Services Institution, Vol. 102, Feb 1957, “The New Zealand Army”, Kippenberger, H. K., England and the Maori War, New Zealand News, Harrop, A. J. (1937)
• Making New Zealand, Vol. 2, No. 24, Department of Internal Affairs, “Defence”, Hall, D. O. W.