Yugoslavs

In 1911 the birthplace of 2,131 people living in New Zealand was given as Austria-Hungary. Today most of these people would be regarded as being born in Yugoslavia. In fact they came principally from Dalmatia, an area on the eastern Adriatic Coast, and though they are really Croats, a name they prefer, they are often called Dalmatians. The first seem to have arrived more than a century ago. There were Dalmatians aboard the Austrian ship Novara, who were impressed by the country and its people. More arrived during the eighties, mainly peasants and fishermen forced from their homeland by the shortage of land and a desire to escape conscription by the Austrians. At first they found work farming or digging for kauri gum in North Auckland, a land very similar to that of their birth. In digging they worked methodically in gangs and when the gum digging failed they bought land which was regarded as being of little value and developed it. The Dalmatian proved a good pioneer and has made a success of farming.

About half the Yugoslavs today are in rural occupations, principally dairying and on small farms, vineyards, orchards, and market gardens. The restaurant business provides the main urban occupation, but in Auckland City they follow a wider range of employments. Some have had a university education and entered a profession. Yugoslavs are found mainly in the Auckland Province, particularly the North Auckland Peninsula, though of recent years they have spread south.

It has been estimated that today there are about 6,000 Yugoslavs or New Zealanders of Yugoslav descent. In 1878 there were about 500 Austro-Hungarians. The main increase came in the nineties; in 1901 there were 1,874, and in 1911, 2,131. At the last census (1956) there were 3,143 born in Yugoslavia.

Some Yugoslav families have reached their second New Zealand born generation, but they are still a problem as their assimilation is not easy. This has been partly due to the feelings of loyalty to the Slav people and partly to the feeling that any government, but particularly one controlled by aliens, is an unnecessary evil. Shortly after the Second World War Yugoslavs overseas were asked to return home. Less than 300 left New Zealand, though many who remained made the decision reluctantly. The war record of the New Zealand Yugoslavs was not good. Some, often of New Zealand birth, volunteered and served with distinction. The majority strongly resisted attempts to conscript them and, though Yugoslavia was an ally and volunteers were requested by the Consul, none came forward. It will take time for the Yugoslav to have the same fundamental feelings and outlook as the British New Zealander.

Poles

After its final partition, Poland ceased to exist as a separate nation. Many Poles emigrated to the United States, but only a mere dribble came to New Zealand. Some were brought with the Scandinavians and were settled near Porangahau. They did not prove popular and were regarded as useless. Others were sent to Jackson Bay. Some Poles (often described at the time as Prussians) settled on the marshland north-east of Christchurch, where they drained and cultivated difficult but productive land. Later Polish immigration was limited to Jews from the east, who with other Jews from Russia have made the fur trade their own. Others have found an occupation in the clothing trade.

In 1944, 837 non-Jewish Poles, nearly all children, were brought to New Zealand from Persia and settled at Pahiatua. Most of the children had been imprisoned in Russia and had lost one or both parents. It was intended that they should return to Poland at New Zealand expense when that country became independent again. Poland, however, remained under the control of Russia. Most of the children did not return, but were joined by parents and other relatives. Generally the newer Polish settlers in New Zealand are against the present government of their country, but their main interest is still Poland. Whether they will develop into true New Zealanders is not yet clear. Naturalisation statistics, however, show that an increasing number have decided to make this country their home.

In 1911, 113 New Zealand residents gave Poland as their place of birth. In 1945 there were 1,307, and in 1961, 2,140.

Chinese

The Chinese are one of the few non-European peoples to have made a home in New Zealand. During the 1850s a few came into the country, probably from Australia, where they had first of all been introduced to provide cheap labour. With the discovery of gold they had poured into Victoria and later into New South Wales. It was gold, too, that brought them in numbers to New Zealand, and in 1867 it was estimated that there were 1,219 in the colony, 1,185 being in Otago. By 1874, the number had reached 4,816, including two women. Fears of a “yellow peril” led to protests throughout the country, and Parliament was petitioned and asked to impose restrictions on Chinese entry. A Select Committee of the House heard exhaustive evidence, but reported favourably on the Chinese, stating that they were sober, hardworking, industrious, and inoffensive. Their presence in a district did not mean additional police, while as gold miners they were capable of making a living from ground already worked over. It appeared unlikely that they would become permanent settlers, for when they had made a reasonable amount they returned home. Apparently encouraged by the report, the English firm of Brogden and Sons, then engaged in railway construction, sounded out the provincial governments on Chinese immigration. There was little antagonism, but at the same time no enthusiasm and the idea was dropped.

During 1878 West Coast members in Parliament made an attack on the Chinese and demanded a Bill to restrict entry. The Premier, Sir George Grey, followed this with a memorandum on Chinese immigration, stating that the immigration of even a few Chinese would be “prolific of disasters in New Zealand”, and instanced leprosy, labour problems, and lower standards of living. The Chinese problem had also to be faced in Australia. In Queensland royal assent had been refused for a restrictive Act in 1876 though a similar Act became law a year later. At an Inter-colonial Conference of 1880–81, uniform legislation was agreed on and passed by the eastern states. New Zealand followed suit with the Chinese Immigrants Restriction Act of 1881, which imposed a poll tax of £10 and limited the number of Chinese that could be brought by any one ship to one for every 10 tons burden.

Agitation against the Chinese continued, particularly in Parliament, where several attempts were made to increase the severity of the restrictions. In 1889 a Bill to do this met with strong opposition in the Legislative Council. It became law only after several months of disagreement between the two Houses, one of the proposed disabilities being removed at the insistence of the Council. It did, however, increase the penalties for breaches of the Act and reduce the number permitted entry in any vessel to one for every 100 tons burden.

This Act was intended as a stop-gap measure until the Asiatic Restriction Act, which extended these restrictions to all Asiatics other than British subjects and refused naturalisation to Chinese, received the royal assent. When the matter was considered at the Colonial Conference of 1897 it was stated that the Imperial Government “objected to any exclusion of immigrants on the grounds of race and colour as contrary to the traditions of the British Empire”, and would not approve of any such measure. A quasi-education test was recommended and this was adopted in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1899, which prohibited the immigration of the insane, the criminal, and diseased, and required all non-British to undergo an “education” test. Chinese had to satisfy these restrictions and pay the poll tax, while from 1907 they had to be able to read 100 words in English.

At this time the Chinese population was actually falling. It had reached a maximum in 1881, when there were 5,004, including nine women, in the colony. With the decline in gold mining, Chinese were forced into the towns, where they entered the fruit and vegetable trade, ran laundries, or into market gardening, where their patient industry found its reward. By the 1901 census the number had fallen to 2,936 (78 women), and reached its lowest in 1916 with 2,147 (130 women). Among the people generally there was considerable antipathy to the Chinese, fostered by such organisations as the White New Zealand League and the Anti-Asiatic Society, which aimed at prohibiting Asiatic immigration and keeping New Zealand completely white. The shooting of a harmless elderly Chinaman in a Wellington street by Lionel Terry during 1905 highlighted the agitation. Terry wrote to the Governor stating that the “yellow peril” was a danger and, as a protest, he deemed it advisable to put a Chinaman to death.

In Parliament total prohibition was favoured, but any Act doing so would not have received royal assent. Nor would the raising of the poll tax to £500 have been any more effective. The importation was financed by syndicates; hence the Chinese would have had to remain almost indefinitely before making repayment of such a large amount.

The anti-Chinese agitation faded during the war years, but when it was over there was a considerable increase in the number of Chinese seeking entry. This was one of the factors leading to the Immigration Restriction Act of 1920 which introduced the permit system to control the immigration of all aliens, but retained the poll tax on Chinese. Only a limited number of permits for the entry of Chinese for permanent residence were issued; in 1926 it was decided to issue no more. Temporary permits continued, but authority for permanent residents to bring in wives was no longer given. Under the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1927 the police could at any time enter the home of a Chinese, without a warrant, if the presence of opium was suspected. From 1930 Chinese students were allowed to enter New Zealand for education, while in 1934 the poll tax was temporarily waived. A change in this attitude to the Chinese came with the Labour Government in 1936. For the first time the old age pension was payable to those who were not British subjects and, from the beginning of the Social Security Scheme, benefits were available to all who contributed. And in 1944 the poll tax and the ships' tonnage limitations were legally ended.

In 1935 it was estimated that there were less than 100 Chinese families in New Zealand, but the Japanese invasion of China led many men in New Zealand to request the right to bring their families to New Zealand for safety. In 1939 permission was given for Chinese permanently resident to bring wives and children under 16 for a temporary visit of two years under a bond of £500. About 250 wives and 250 children entered, but by the time the two years was up the war with Japan made return impossible. Even when the war ended, return continued to be difficult and, eventually, 1,408 persons, mainly wives and children, were allowed to take up permanent residence. A more lenient and humane attitude has been adopted towards the Chinese since the war and it has been recognised that they should be able to live normal lives in this country. This has been assisted by the reluctance of the Communist Government in China to issue exit permits, and the fact that the Chinese have begun to regard New Zealand as their home, particularly by those who were born or educated in this country. Between 1884 and 1907, when Cabinet decided that naturalisation of Chinese should cease, there were about 17 naturalised each year. After considerable discussion, naturalisation recommenced in 1952. One of the difficulties in the past had been that adoption of British nationality did not mean the loss of Chinese nationality, for this is acquired by descent. Now encouragement is given to those Chinese whose outlook is generally that of a New Zealander, especially where there are children growing up as New Zealanders, to be naturalised, provided that at the same time they renounce their Chinese nationality. From its minimum in 1916 the number of Chinese began to rise again. In 1921 it was 3,266 (including 156 women), but fell again to 2,943 (363 women) in 1936. Up to this time the disparity in numbers between men and women had been most marked, but the change of policy in 1939 brought a better balance in the figures for 1945, 4,373 (1,254). The latest figures are those for 1956, 6,167 (2,676) and 1961, 7,697 (3,232). There were, in addition, 500 and 636 respectively of mixed blood. In the younger age groups there is probably a better balance between the sexes than the figures would indicate.

In their humble way the Chinese have been good citizens. They have committed few serious crimes; indeed, the crimes for which they are usually in the Courts, pakapoo, gaming, or opium smoking, are not ones they regard as serious. Industrious and intelligent as they usually are, they have not taken any prominent part in public life. Only on two occasions have they shown the way. In Taranaki, Chew Chong, the fungus exporter, established the first dairy factory, while in Otago Sew Hoy helped in the development of alluvial gold mining.

Indians

The first (Asiatic) Indians probably came to New Zealand in the early days of settlement as servants to the Anglo-Indians who retired to New Zealand. It was not, however, until the early years of this century that they came to the country in any number. While the main stream was attracted to Fiji as indentured labourers, a few came to New Zealand either directly or through Fiji. When the indenture system was suspended in 1917 and abolished in 1920, there were signs that the flow would be diverted to New Zealand. In 1919, for example, there were about a thousand inquiries from Indians wishing to come to New Zealand, and fear of the consequences of a flood of Indians led in part to the Immigration Restriction Act of 1920, which made an entry permit necessary.

The number of Indians resident in New Zealand grew from 15 at the 1911 census to 671 (including 49 females) in 1921 and 987 (177) in 1926, with a further increase in 1936 to 1,198 (234). During the late thirties many Indians returned home permanently, but at the same time others seem to have decided to make New Zealand their home. This was shown by the number who brought wives to New Zealand; in 1945 the census figure was 1,549 (423). The figures for 1961 are 4,027, but, of these, 690 are of mixed race, for the Indian has not had the same attitude to mixed marriages as the Chinese.

Most Indians resident in New Zealand are Gujarati Hindus from the Surat and Navsari areas of Bombay, though there are also a few Punjabi Sikhs who are Moslems. Originally peasant farmers, it is probable that they hoped to take up land in New Zealand, but the high price and the attitude of New Zealanders to their employment in skilled occupations forced them to hawk fruit and vegetables or to collect bottles. In the country they took up labouring work on the roads, in swamp drainage, or scrub cutting. Today a number are employed in market gardening and a few in manufacturing.

The Indian community has of recent years become a more stable and permanent part of New Zealand society. The sex ratio, especially in the young, is more evenly balanced. The main colonies are in Auckland and Wellington. Indians are not yet as assimilated as the Chinese, but the increasing numbers born and educated in New Zealand will find that a larger range of occupations will be open to them.

Pacific Islanders

New Zealand's superior education system and the high wages ruling have proved attractions to the Pacific Islanders. Many have made the short journey to New Zealand either as temporary visitors or, increasingly in recent years, as permanent settlers. In the years prior to the Second World War the purity of the white race in New Zealand was a major consideration in legislation. The immigration Restriction Act of 1920 required the possession of a permit before any native or part native from the Islands was allowed to land in New Zealand. New Zealand's responsibilities and interests in the Pacific gradually made a somewhat less restrictive attitude essential, and arrangements were made for the British Consul in Tonga, the Administrator (later the High Commissioner) in Western Samoa, and the Resident in the Cook Islands to screen applicants who wished to come to New Zealand. Every effort was made to see that only those of good health and character and who were capable of earning a living and maintaining themselves according to European standards left their homeland.

In 1956 there were 8,103 Islanders in New Zealand, but the number is increasing rapidly and grew in 1961 to 14,340 (7,889 of full blood), of whom 6,481 were Samoans. Most have settled in Auckland, but Wellington also has a fair colony. The men are chiefly labourers, while the women are employed mainly in domestic or similar work. They are a gregarious, happy people with their own (Congregational) churches, finding that housing is often the most difficult problem of life in New Zealand.

Representatives of other races are also to be found in New Zealand's population. The most numerous of those not already mentioned are Hungarians, Swiss, Greeks, and the Lebanese and Syrians. The Jews should also be mentioned, but they are considered as a religious group.

Hungarians

No separate figures for those of Hungarian birth living in the country are obtainable before 1921. At that census there were 44, but in the 1961 census there were 1,025 registered as aliens.

Before the First World War a number of peasants settled at Tuatapere in Southland, where they took up dairying and potato growing, but they have now been assimilated. In 1956, after the uprising in Hungary, the Government decided to allow an entry of 1,000 of those who had fled the country. This raised the number from 378 in 1956 to 1,496 in 1961 and 1,025 in 1963.

Swiss

There has long been a small Swiss colony in New Zealand. At the 1881 census there were 332 of Swiss birth; in 1901, 333; by 1921 there were 607, and in 1963, 703. The Swiss who have settled in New Zealand are to be found principally in two groups, either dairy farmers chiefly in Taranaki or as well trained and leading members of the hotel, restaurant, or hairdressing professions.

Greeks

At the 1881 census there were 87 of Greek birth in New Zealand; by 1901 there were 123, and in 1956, 606. In 1963 1,130 Greeks were registered as aliens. Some, however, who give Rumania or Turkey as their birthplace are Greek. The major increase has taken place in recent years with the introduction of girls for domestic service, though some families were brought to New Zealand in return for their kindnesses to New Zealand soldiers during the Second World War.

Lebanese and Syrians

It is not certain when the first immigrants from Syria and the Lebanon came to New Zealand, but in 1878 there were 74 males in this country, all of whom had been born in various parts of the Turkish Empire. By 1901 the Syrians and Lebanese numbered 240; in 1921, 707; and in 1945, 1,396. The latest figure for 1961 gives 503, and 554 as being of mixed blood. The tendency has been for these people both to marry Europeans and to consider themselves European in race.

The principal occupation is clothing manufacture, though the Lebanese were among the pioneer viti-culturalists in the area around Auckland.

by James Oakley Wilson, D.S.C., M.COM., A.L.A., Chief Librarian, General Assembly Library, Wellington.

• From Europe to New Zealand: An Account of Our Continental European Settlers, Lochore, R. A., 1951.
• The Chinese in New Zealand, Fong, N. B., 1959. (Note: Contains inaccuracies.)
• The Scandinavians in Australia, New Zealand and the Western Pacific, Lyng, J. S., 1939.
• The Making of a Nation a Series of Eight Articles, G. H. Scholefield,New Zealand Times, 13 Feb – 3 Apr 1907.
• Indian Settlement in New Zealand, 1900–56, McGee, T. C., New Zealand Geographer, Oct 1962.