The people of New Zealand are drawn from several races, Pakeha and Maori, European, and Asiatic. All have come across the sea to make their home in New Zealand. It is almost impossible, however, to give an accurate statistical analysis of the number of any one race which has come to New Zealand. No figures exist showing the numbers of the various races; indeed, the only ones of value are those showing the birthplaces of the population and they are not wholly reliable for the purpose. Moreover, after five or six generations in the case of the European, intermarriage has so blended the elements that a new race, rather than a group of races, is being produced.
From figures taken from the 1961 census we find that 91·7 per cent of the population were of European descent; 4·3 per cent, full-blooded Maoris; 2·6 per cent, various Maori-European crosses; and 1·3 per cent, other races or non-European crosses. Over 94 per cent are either European or have some European blood in them, while 8·3 per cent (at least) are Maori or have some Maori blood. There are difficulties in analysing the European population into the races comprising it and it is necessary to make estimates. At the census of 1858, 37·5 per cent of the European population were New Zealand born, nearly 40 per cent were born in England or Wales, 13·5 per cent in Scotland, 7·7 per cent in Ireland, and 2·4 per cent in Australia. In 1861 the percentages were 34, New Zealand; 36·5, England; 15·7, Scotland; 8·9, Ireland; and 2·61, Australia. In 1878, when the colony had a population of 414,000, 42 per cent were New Zealand born, 26 per cent English, 11·6 per cent Scots, and nearly 11 per cent Irish, while the Australians were approximately 4 per cent. A similar breakdown in 1901 gives 66·8 per cent New Zealand born, 14·7 per cent English, 6·2 per cent Scots, and 5·6 per cent Irish, while 3·5 per cent were Australian born.
If it can be taken that the New Zealand and Australian born had parents of the various races in approximately the same rates as the remainder of the population (not necessarily true), they can be ignored. Apart from the Maoris, in 1858 roughly 60 per cent were English, 20 per cent Scots, and 11 per cent Irish; the remaining 9 per cent were not known, were born at sea, or were foreign born. Twenty years later, in 1878, on the same basis, 50 per cent were English, 22 per cent Scots, and 20 per cent Irish; while in 1901 the percentages were English, 51; Scots, 21; and Irish, 19. In 1936, other than Australians, 56 per cent of the overseas born were English, 22 per cent Scots, and 10 per cent Irish. Although there have been some changes in the figures, they are sufficiently consistent to show that slightly more than half of the European population is English; somewhat less than a quarter Scots; and slightly less than a fifth, Irish. Less than one in 10 is of non-British stock. Of course the strains have not remained pure and very much more than a half will have English blood in them, and so with all the other races.
The English are the most numerous of those making up the New Zealand race. Historically, they were first in the field. Captain Cook and most of his crew were, of course, English, and the first European to settle was an Englishman. George Bruce, a marine surveyor from New South Wales who came to New Zealand in 1806 and lived under the protection of Te Pehi, whose daughter he married. The English brought Christianity to New Zealand. In 1814 Samuel Marsden sent William Hall, a shipwright from Hull, and John King, expert in rope making, to establish a mission station at the Bay of Islands, where others, mostly English, joined them. Indeed, in the years before organised settlement, the English carried out most of the pioneering work. Englishmen also took the initiative in organised settlement. The New Zealand Company was primarily an English concern which, in its early years, pioneered three settlements. With the exception of one ship from the Clyde and another from Plymouth, Wellington was settled mainly from the southern counties of England. Nelson settlers came from much the same area while the New Plymouth Association colonised Taranaki with settlers from Devon and Cornwall. Canterbury was settled by the Church of England Association, which followed the lead of the Free Church of Scotland with the Otago scheme.
The object in establishing these settlements was more than the promotion of emigration. It was a desire to transplant to New Zealand an epitome of English society, with its various gradations in due proportion, carrying with it English laws, customs, associations, habits, and manners, as well as the English political and economic systems. In short, everything would be English except the land – and the climate – and in due time it was hoped that New Zealand would mirror the social system and national character of the mother country. There can be no doubt that in this respect the English failed. Essentially, the aim of the settlers who came to New Zealand was to better themselves. The wealthy certainly tried to reproduce the economic and social system they had known; indeed they often succeeded, but at the expense of their capital. The so-called “labouring classes” had the advantage in the fluid condition of the new settlements. Their needs were fewer, their initiative was often greater, and the gaps between the classes narrowed. Thus the main condition of stability was lacking and labourers were always striving to become landowners. Even J. R. Godley admitted he had had exaggerated hopes, for what had taken centuries to build in England could not be duplicated in New Zealand in a matter of months.
The last organised settlements in New Zealand were at Feilding (the Emigrants' and Colonists' Aid Corporation, c. 1874, represented by the Hon. Colonel Feilding) and at Te Aroha, Thames district, in 1880, by a body of Lincolnshire farmers.
Today New Zealand has characteristics of its own, but it is still basically an English country, for the English strain is the largest and most important. The English have rarely found it necessary to organise and assert their race. The Royal Society of St. George celebrates St. George's Day (23 April) with a dinner and toast to England. A few of the counties have or have had their associations supported by emigrants from Devon and Cornwall, Lancashire and Yorkshire, Northumberland and Durham, and Kent.
New Zealand at first seems, like New South Wales, to have been principally an English colony, but that does not mean that Scots were not present. Vancouver had in his ship's company a Scots naturalist, Dr Menzies, who collected lichens at Dusky Sound. Gilbert Mair, from Peterhead, arrived at the Bay of Islands in 1824 and was probably the first Scotsman to settle in this country. A year or so later four Scots remained at Hokianga, the sole settlers from the First New Zealand Company. The first organised attempt to settle Scots in New Zealand was that of the New Zealand, Manukau, and Waitemata Company, a body with little claim to fame. The first settler on the Waitemata was, however, a Scot, Dr (later, Sir) John Logan Campbell.
In the first eight years of its colonising activities, the New Zealand Company, which had been reconstituted in 1839, sent out 76 ships. Of these, only three sailed from the Clyde. Among the Scottish pioneers was the Rev. John Macfarlane, the first Scots minister in Wellington, who, in February 1840, conducted his first service on the banks of the Hutt, at the short-lived settlement of Britannia. The difficulty in obtaining a clear title to their land in the north caused many of the Scots to move to the South Island, where they joined the Deans brothers, who had pioneered a settlement on the Canterbury Plains at Riccarton. Two Scots families also anticipated the settlement in Otago and were established there in 1845. But Scottish emigration moved slowly. The Scot is noted for his caution and it is probable that for this reason he preferred to see how others fared before committing himself to any New Zealand venture. He is also more suspicious of cooperative concerns than the English and, while as an individual he might undertake certain activities, he is more careful when others are responsible. Between 1839 and 1842, 400,000 emigrants left the British Isles. Of these 8,000 came to New Zealand, but only 500 were Scots. There was little real interest in emigration in Scotland in the early forties and considerable doubts and difficulties had to be overcome before the Otago Association in November 1847 was able to send out the first two ships with nearly 250 colonists to New Zealand. And one of these vessels, the John Wickliffe, sailed from London with a considerable group of English emigrants.
Otago remained predominantly Scottish until 1861, when the discovery of gold caused an influx which made them a minority. The miners had their influence on the Scots, but the Scots probably influenced them more. They did this largely through the education system which they established. It was a reasonably democratic system, open to all capable of benefiting from its high standards, and it provided not only elementary but also secondary and university education. When the provincial educational systems were replaced by a colonial scheme, Otago provided the basis for the new system.
In New Zealand the Scots proved good colonists loyal to their religion and devoted to education, though on occasions their outlook, particularly in politics, was rather narrow. Drawn principally from the poorer classes, they were prepared to succeed by their own efforts. Scotland did not have the sharp class distinctions of England and the settlers generally regarded individual worth rather than birth or upbringing as the standard of community respect. When with wealth coming from gold and from its own efforts Otago became New Zealand's leading and most prosperous province, its community standards were regarded as a model for New Zealand. Certainly they were so regarded by those of the working classes who by their efforts were breaking in new land or otherwise improving their station. By 1861 there were nearly 31,000 of Scottish birth in the colony; 17 years later the number was nearly 48,000. During the seventies Vogel's assisted immigration scheme brought over 13,000, exceeded only by the English and Irish. Scots were popular throughout New Zealand and most provinces tried to attract them. Canterbury, Nelson, and of course, Southland, which had the largest proportion of Scots, had their quota. Hawke's Bay contracted for 100 Highland families to be settled on the Ruataniwha Plains, but the scheme was only partly completed.
The most romantic Scots migration was that led by Norman McLeod, which ended at Waipu in North Auckland. These Highlanders emigrated first of all to Nova Scotia. After 30 years, however, a few emigrated in the 1850s to South Australia and then on to New Zealand, where others joined them.
Many of the Scots coming to New Zealand followed the traditional trade of engineering, but during the second half of the century the Scots had a virtual monopoly of shepherding, in particular, the management of high-country sheep. In high-country mustering camps at this time a good proportion spoke the Gaelic and it was the Highlanders' knowledge both of sheep and of hillcraft which so ably assisted in the development of the industry. In this field they had the great advantage of the Scotch collies and their ability to train working dogs.
For all their legendary carefulness the Scots and their descendants have been generous public benefactors and the names of Sir John Logan Campbell and Sir John McKenzie, to give but two, are worthy of mention. Names distinguished in the political field include James Macandrew, Donald Reid, and Sir Donald McLean. Robert Stout became Premier and Chief Justice, and Peter Fraser became Prime Minister.
Apart from a faint burr in accent, which distinguishes the speech of much of South Otago and Southland from the rest of New Zealand, there are few outward signs of Scotland in New Zealand. On Burns's and St. Andrew's days, many New Zealanders, some with very little Scots blood in them, celebrate, while a surprising number answer to the names “Mac” or “Jock”. The Army has a Scottish regiment, while pipe bands in traditional Highland dress are both popular and well supported throughout the country. Caledonian societies still exist and at intervals hold Highland games and sports.
The early years of New Zealand settlement were times of strife and hunger in Ireland and many of her people were forced to emigrate. A number of Irish convicts were shipped to Australia and from that place some found their way to New Zealand and other Pacific islands. Thomas Poynton settled on the Hokianga in 1829, where he traded in timber. His wife took their first child to Sydney to be baptised by a priest. Lieutenant Thomas McDonnell, a naval officer from County Antrim, purchased in 1831 the brig Sir George Murray, built at Horeke, and used it to transport his family to the shipyard, which he had also bought. Bishop Pompallier was welcomed to New Zealand by the Irish Catholics, who by this time were to be found all round the coasts. Of the first 3,500 settlers at Port Nicholson (Wellington), 250 were Roman Catholics, not all of whom were Irish, with Father O'Reilly as their priest. Auckland was, during the forties, a very cosmopolitan community and, of the 3,000 settled there, 400 were Irish Catholics from Australia.
During the hungry forties the distress in Ireland was great and several commissions considered remedies, including the possibility of emigration to New Zealand. Nothing came of this and, almost in panic, Irish emigrated in thousands to the United States. Some, however, came to New South Wales and thence to New Zealand; only a few came direct. The gold discoveries of the sixties brought Irish miners who had followed the metal through California and Victoria to the end of the road in New Zealand, where they settled. Kingston and Queenstown, Lake Wakatipu, are Irish landmarks.
Prior to 1870 little attempt was made by the provinces to obtain Irish immigrants, and even during the seventies, in the early years of Vogel's search for population, few came to the colony. In all, however, 19,300 of the 84,000 who came to New Zealand under the scheme were Irish, second only to the English. Many were labourers brought to work as navvies by Brogdens, while others came in the largest Irish organised migration, the settlement of Katikati by George Vesey Stewart and his fellow Orangemen. Irish have continued to come to New Zealand in considerable numbers, but in a smaller proportion. The Irish influence on New Zealand has been great, but it has usually been exercised through personalities rather than collectively. Here the Roman Catholic Church, supported chiefly by the Irish, must be excluded, for as a body it has had considerable influence on New Zealand life.
Irish, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, have been attracted to politics. John Ballance, who led the first Liberal Government, was an Ulsterman from County Antrim, and William Ferguson Massey, the Reform Prime Minister, also came from County Derry in the north. Several born in England or Scotland of Irish parents were educated in Ireland and made their name in politics, particularly in the early years. FitzGerald Stafford, and Bowen are amongst them.
It is difficult to distinguish the numbers of the two groups of Irish who came to New Zealand. Probably the Southern Irish were in a majority. In New Zealand the Southern Irish are in a few small ways less assimilated than, for example, the Scandinavians. They have retained their identity through their church and its schools much more than some other groups. They have their own friendly society, the Hibernian, which today has happier relations with its Ulster rival, the Loyal Orange Lodge, than was once the case. The Irishman is, however, basically a New Zealander and partakes in every activity, adding his Celtic language, thought, and customs to those less colourful but of English origin.
If the Australians are regarded as a separate race and not a group of English, Scots, and Irish, then they, too, have played quite an important part in the New Zealand story. Australia is New Zealand's nearest neighbour and for years New Zealand has provided another frontier where the Australian with experience could profit from his skills. At first Australia was the civilised outpost and New Zealand the home of cannibals. Ships from Australia came to the islands whaling and sealing and to obtain timber, masts and spars. When settlement seemed likely, Australians obtained large tracts of land in anticipation. When sovereignty was established in 1840 they brought their skills and demonstrated them successfully before settlers who often knew only English ways, which were not always best suited to the New Zealand climate. In time gold proved an attraction and brought thousands from Australia to these shores. In addition New Zealand has, from convict days, provided a refuge, often temporary, for those wanted by the police in Australia.
When in the late years of last century and the early years of the twentieth the North Island was being opened up, Australians vied with South Islanders for the land. Even now, when New Zealand has insufficient land to satisfy its own land hunger, it still has an attraction for Australians. Today, however, they come as representatives of Australian firms extending their interests in New Zealand. Australia has also provided New Zealand with many of its political leaders. In the early days some of our legislators had had experience in Australian Parliaments, but two Prime Ministers, Sir Joseph Ward and M. J. Savage, were Australian born. Early in this century the Labour movement received much of its strength from Australia, and this was reflected in the large number of Australians in the first Labour Cabinet.
In 1861, 9,533, or 2·6 per cent of the European population, were Australian by birth. In the 1878 census the number reached 16,091 and continued to increase to a maximum in 1911, when 5·03 per cent of the European population were Australian by birth. In 1961 there were still 35,412 Australian born living in New Zealand.
Few French have settled in New Zealand, yet they have played a not unimportant part in its history. De Surville was in New Zealand waters in 1769 before Cook left, while in the next 60 years four French expeditions visited the islands. French whalers were active round the coasts and French names of many coastal features record their activities. A Frenchman, Baron Charles de Thierry, arrived in Hokianga in 1835 to establish a kingdom in New Zealand, and indirectly assisted Busby, the British Resident, to establish the New Zealand Confederacy. France was responsible for sending the first Roman Catholic missionaries. Bishop Pompallier, with a bodyguard of French priests, arrived at the Hokianga in January 1838. French interest in the Church in New Zealand continued throughout last century. Maori prayer books were printed in France, and for some time French priests were second only to the Irish. One of the outstanding women of New Zealand, Mother Mary Aubert, was of French birth.
The purchase of land in Banks Peninsula by French whalers led to the attempt of the Nanto Bordelaise Co. to establish a colony at Akaroa, and 57 French were sent out. The fact that New Zealand had been annexed by the British prevented the dispatch of further colonists, but most of those already in New Zealand remained and became naturalised British subjects. No other scheme for organised French settlement was considered and, even in the flood of assisted immigration in the seventies, only 275, less in number than the Italians, were brought to the colony. It is probable that a few came to seek gold, but the number, 505, who were of French birth in 1861 reached only 737 in 1878, its maximum at any time.
Throughout New Zealand interest in France and French culture has always been great, helped by the fact that during the First World War New Zealand soldiers fought in Northern France and Belgium. Of all foreign languages, French is the one most commonly taught in secondary schools and universities and, though many studying it learn little more than the names of common objects, French literary clubs and circles are common.
After the British elements, the Germans provided the largest increment to New Zealand's population in the nineteenth century, larger than that of any other European country. They took little part in discovery and exploration, but in 1839 George Hempleman bought a large area in Banks Peninsula and took his wife there to live. He was joined by a small party who had arrived with the French settlers at Akaroa and settled at what became known as German Bay, now Takamatua.
When the New Zealand Company met difficulty in obtaining sufficient emigrants, they turned to Germany, in particular to Hamburg. The Chatham Islands were suggested as a suitable spot, but the British Government decided that the company had no right to purchase land there. Eventually the interest of the North German (Lutheran) Mission Society was gained and some 340, mainly from Hamburg and Mecklenberg, and including six missionaries, were sent in two ships to Nelson. Maori troubles and the general conditions of settlement caused the majority to go to South Australia, but about a hundred settled in the Moutere Valley, where their descendants still farm.
Immediately prior to the Maori Wars a scheme of military settlements was suggested and two German villages were planned. War broke out, however, and as the German State Government objected to recruitment nothing came of the project. There were some difficulties again in the seventies, but, despite this, 3,000 came to New Zealand as assisted immigrants under Vogel's scheme, nearly as many as the total of all Scandinavians. Some were sent to the unhappy Jackson Bay settlement, but later they spread throughout the colony.
At the 1861 census the Germans by birth were 1,999. By 1878 they had grown to 4,649 but in 1901 were 4,217. It is probable that a few of the Austro-Hungarians were German in speech, as were some of the Poles and Russians. The Bohemians, for example, who during the early sixties settled at Puhoi, north of Auckland, were German in speech and probably race. When war broke out in 1914 there were about 4,000 Germans in New Zealand. Many were interned and, in 1919, several hundred were deported, so that in 1921 the number had fallen to 2,188. It was 1928 before they were again allowed to come to New Zealand, and in the years immediately preceding the last war about 900 German-speaking refugees arrived here. Today the Germans are a submerged group and absorbed into the British stock. Often the only sign of their ancestry is the surname. Indeed, during the Second World War many served in the New Zealand Forces and they have a far better record here than others who were, at least on paper, allies.
It is probable that the Germans introduced hop growing to New Zealand, but their greatest contribution has been in the scientific field. Dieffenbach, the naturalist in the Tory; von Tunzelmann, pioneer in Otago's back country; and Weber, civil engineer in Hawke's Bay, were all German. The two greatest were Ferdinand von Hochstetter, who arrived in New Zealand in 1858 with the Austrian scientific expedition in the Novara, and Julius von Haast, Canterbury provincial geologist. Gustavus Ferdinand von Tempsky, of the Forest Rangers, a Prussian, was one of the more colourful fighters during the Maori Wars.
Included in the crew of Tasman's two ships, the Heemskerck and the Zeehaen, were the first Scandinavians to see New Zealand. Cook had Solander, a Swedish botanist, on his first voyage and named Solander Island after him, while Scandinavian whalers were among those to come to the Bay of Islands to refit. They do not seem to have been amongst the first settlers, but during the sixties a few arrived. The most outstanding was Bishop Monrad, the ex-premier of Denmark, who left his country after its defeat by Prussia in the war over Schleswig-Holstein in 1864. He came to New Zealand, accompanied by his wife and members of his family, and took up land in the Manawatu, where he roughed it clearing the bush. He left for Denmark in 1868, but his sons returned to farm at Karere.
After the passing of Vogel's Immigration and Public Works Act in 1870, the Government turned to the northern countries for migrants. The first few families were attracted to their compatriots in the Manawatu, where they helped to establish Palmerston North. Scandinavians were also in demand for those isolated settlements which several of the provincial governments had established in such places as Stewart Island and Jackson Bay. A few others went to Canterbury and Otago, but the main settlements were in the Seventy Mile Bush, stretching for that distance on the Wellington – Hawke's Bay boundary. The proposal was for a series of villages each containing from 50 to 70 families. The first parties went to Hawke's Bay in 1872 and the names of the towns of Dannevirke and Norsewood record their establishment by Danes and Norwegians. In the seventies most of the other centres in this area were Scandinavian. Mauriceville and Eketahuna (originally called Mellemskov) in the Wairarapa were settled from Wellington by Scandinavians.
Organised immigration ended in 1875 and, of the 84,000 brought in, there were 3,294 Scandinavians, 1,938 Danes, 667 Swedes, and 689 Norwegians. In 1878 there were 4,600 in the colony, about half Danes. Since that time there has been a small but steady flow of migrants from Scandinavia. At the time they formed 7 per cent of the Hawke's Bay population. The number reached a maximum in 1911, when there were 2,262 of Danish, 1,344 of Norwegian, and 1,518 of Swedish birth. In 1956 there were only 2,355 born in the Scandinavian countries living in New Zealand, most of them growing old, for of recent years there has been little new blood. Today the Scandinavians are submerged and assimilated. They look like the English and Scots; they have married them. During the First World War the Scandinavians fought alongside the English, though here it must be admitted the Danes had no love for the Germans.
The Scandinavians have played their part in the public life of New Zealand. The most outstanding of the immigrants was Judge O. J. Alpers, born in Denmark, who was unique in that, although of alien birth, he became a Judge of the Supreme Court. Johannes C. Andersen was a scholar and librarian of distinction. The Scandinavians, living as they did in the one area for many years, spoke their own language. For a brief while they had their own journal, Scandia, but today few Scandinavian clubs or societies exist. Even the Lutheran Church, the national church, seems to have lost its hold, and the 4,000 adherents today would include many Germans or people of German descent.
New Zealand's dairy industry probably gained considerably from Danish personnel and techniques, though they have taken little part in its organisation. Together with refrigeration, the Swedish separator was the making of the dairy industry, but whether its introduction came from immigrants or the manufacturer's advertising is not certain.
New Zealand has always preferred immigrants to be of British stock or, failing these, of northern European, but on one occasion at least it has assisted immigration from outside these areas. In the seventies, when Vogel and the provinces were desperate for population, the agents in Europe went south and, in all, some 300 Italians (mainly from Leghorn) were brought to New Zealand. It was an unhappy experiment, for the Italians were unable to speak or understand English; in addition many were sent to Jackson Bay, where they were given road work for which they were unsuited. The Government gave instructions to stop assistance for Italians wishing to migrate, sent a few back, and tried to forget the whole affair. The Italians were not suited to life in the bush and drifted away to the towns, some going to Australia. In 1878 there were 538 Italians, but in 1891 the number had dropped to 397.
Italian immigration since the nineties has been organised along migration chains, a system whereby Italians in New Zealand encourage other Italians to emigrate and either finance or help them. The system has the advantage of helping the immigrant, but it builds up alien communities in New Zealand. The chains have been connected with occupations the Italians have followed. Three from Southern Italy have brought in men for fishing and market gardening, two from Northern Italy for coal mining, market gardening, and dairy farming. Italians generally are not regarded as the best of immigrants. They have usually been peasants, poorly educated and superstitious. They have difficulty with the language and live in colonies, while it takes three generations to turn them into New Zealanders. This has been accentuated by the inclination of the men to return to Italy for wives and by the reluctance of the women to emigrate.
During the last war, while not strongly anti-British, the New Zealand Italians generally showed little inclination to fight for New Zealand. It is possible, however, that in part this may have been due to the attitude of New Zealanders to them. At the same time many New Zealanders serving in Italy were gaining a more favourable opinion of the people.
Italians have taken little part in the public life of New Zealand and in only two fields, terazzo work and some aspects of viticulture, have they added a little to our national culture.
Despite the fact that it was a Dutchman who discovered New Zealand, the Dutch have taken little interest in the country. The hostile reception they received from the Maoris must have remained long in their memories, though Dutch have not often been migrants. In 1878 there were in New Zealand only 138 born in the Netherlands or its colonies, and the number remained steady around this figure until the outbreak of the Second World War. From the beginning of the war with Japan the situation began to change. Dutch refugees from what is now Indonesia came to New Zealand and they were followed by others who were regarded as surplus to the Netherlands optimum population and who were encouraged by New Zealand Government policy to settle.
In 1963 there were nearly 14,000, who had been born in the Netherlands, registered as aliens in New Zealand, though large numbers had become naturalised.
In 1911 the birthplace of 2,131 people living in New Zealand was given as Austria-Hungary. Today most of these people would be regarded as being born in Yugoslavia. In fact they came principally from Dalmatia, an area on the eastern Adriatic Coast, and though they are really Croats, a name they prefer, they are often called Dalmatians. The first seem to have arrived more than a century ago. There were Dalmatians aboard the Austrian ship Novara, who were impressed by the country and its people. More arrived during the eighties, mainly peasants and fishermen forced from their homeland by the shortage of land and a desire to escape conscription by the Austrians. At first they found work farming or digging for kauri gum in North Auckland, a land very similar to that of their birth. In digging they worked methodically in gangs and when the gum digging failed they bought land which was regarded as being of little value and developed it. The Dalmatian proved a good pioneer and has made a success of farming.
About half the Yugoslavs today are in rural occupations, principally dairying and on small farms, vineyards, orchards, and market gardens. The restaurant business provides the main urban occupation, but in Auckland City they follow a wider range of employments. Some have had a university education and entered a profession. Yugoslavs are found mainly in the Auckland Province, particularly the North Auckland Peninsula, though of recent years they have spread south.
It has been estimated that today there are about 6,000 Yugoslavs or New Zealanders of Yugoslav descent. In 1878 there were about 500 Austro-Hungarians. The main increase came in the nineties; in 1901 there were 1,874, and in 1911, 2,131. At the last census (1956) there were 3,143 born in Yugoslavia.
Some Yugoslav families have reached their second New Zealand born generation, but they are still a problem as their assimilation is not easy. This has been partly due to the feelings of loyalty to the Slav people and partly to the feeling that any government, but particularly one controlled by aliens, is an unnecessary evil. Shortly after the Second World War Yugoslavs overseas were asked to return home. Less than 300 left New Zealand, though many who remained made the decision reluctantly. The war record of the New Zealand Yugoslavs was not good. Some, often of New Zealand birth, volunteered and served with distinction. The majority strongly resisted attempts to conscript them and, though Yugoslavia was an ally and volunteers were requested by the Consul, none came forward. It will take time for the Yugoslav to have the same fundamental feelings and outlook as the British New Zealander.
After its final partition, Poland ceased to exist as a separate nation. Many Poles emigrated to the United States, but only a mere dribble came to New Zealand. Some were brought with the Scandinavians and were settled near Porangahau. They did not prove popular and were regarded as useless. Others were sent to Jackson Bay. Some Poles (often described at the time as Prussians) settled on the marshland north-east of Christchurch, where they drained and cultivated difficult but productive land. Later Polish immigration was limited to Jews from the east, who with other Jews from Russia have made the fur trade their own. Others have found an occupation in the clothing trade.
In 1944, 837 non-Jewish Poles, nearly all children, were brought to New Zealand from Persia and settled at Pahiatua. Most of the children had been imprisoned in Russia and had lost one or both parents. It was intended that they should return to Poland at New Zealand expense when that country became independent again. Poland, however, remained under the control of Russia. Most of the children did not return, but were joined by parents and other relatives. Generally the newer Polish settlers in New Zealand are against the present government of their country, but their main interest is still Poland. Whether they will develop into true New Zealanders is not yet clear. Naturalisation statistics, however, show that an increasing number have decided to make this country their home.
In 1911, 113 New Zealand residents gave Poland as their place of birth. In 1945 there were 1,307, and in 1961, 2,140.
The Chinese are one of the few non-European peoples to have made a home in New Zealand. During the 1850s a few came into the country, probably from Australia, where they had first of all been introduced to provide cheap labour. With the discovery of gold they had poured into Victoria and later into New South Wales. It was gold, too, that brought them in numbers to New Zealand, and in 1867 it was estimated that there were 1,219 in the colony, 1,185 being in Otago. By 1874, the number had reached 4,816, including two women. Fears of a “yellow peril” led to protests throughout the country, and Parliament was petitioned and asked to impose restrictions on Chinese entry. A Select Committee of the House heard exhaustive evidence, but reported favourably on the Chinese, stating that they were sober, hardworking, industrious, and inoffensive. Their presence in a district did not mean additional police, while as gold miners they were capable of making a living from ground already worked over. It appeared unlikely that they would become permanent settlers, for when they had made a reasonable amount they returned home. Apparently encouraged by the report, the English firm of Brogden and Sons, then engaged in railway construction, sounded out the provincial governments on Chinese immigration. There was little antagonism, but at the same time no enthusiasm and the idea was dropped.
During 1878 West Coast members in Parliament made an attack on the Chinese and demanded a Bill to restrict entry. The Premier, Sir George Grey, followed this with a memorandum on Chinese immigration, stating that the immigration of even a few Chinese would be “prolific of disasters in New Zealand”, and instanced leprosy, labour problems, and lower standards of living. The Chinese problem had also to be faced in Australia. In Queensland royal assent had been refused for a restrictive Act in 1876 though a similar Act became law a year later. At an Inter-colonial Conference of 1880–81, uniform legislation was agreed on and passed by the eastern states. New Zealand followed suit with the Chinese Immigrants Restriction Act of 1881, which imposed a poll tax of £10 and limited the number of Chinese that could be brought by any one ship to one for every 10 tons burden.
Agitation against the Chinese continued, particularly in Parliament, where several attempts were made to increase the severity of the restrictions. In 1889 a Bill to do this met with strong opposition in the Legislative Council. It became law only after several months of disagreement between the two Houses, one of the proposed disabilities being removed at the insistence of the Council. It did, however, increase the penalties for breaches of the Act and reduce the number permitted entry in any vessel to one for every 100 tons burden.
This Act was intended as a stop-gap measure until the Asiatic Restriction Act, which extended these restrictions to all Asiatics other than British subjects and refused naturalisation to Chinese, received the royal assent. When the matter was considered at the Colonial Conference of 1897 it was stated that the Imperial Government “objected to any exclusion of immigrants on the grounds of race and colour as contrary to the traditions of the British Empire”, and would not approve of any such measure. A quasi-education test was recommended and this was adopted in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1899, which prohibited the immigration of the insane, the criminal, and diseased, and required all non-British to undergo an “education” test. Chinese had to satisfy these restrictions and pay the poll tax, while from 1907 they had to be able to read 100 words in English.
At this time the Chinese population was actually falling. It had reached a maximum in 1881, when there were 5,004, including nine women, in the colony. With the decline in gold mining, Chinese were forced into the towns, where they entered the fruit and vegetable trade, ran laundries, or into market gardening, where their patient industry found its reward. By the 1901 census the number had fallen to 2,936 (78 women), and reached its lowest in 1916 with 2,147 (130 women). Among the people generally there was considerable antipathy to the Chinese, fostered by such organisations as the White New Zealand League and the Anti-Asiatic Society, which aimed at prohibiting Asiatic immigration and keeping New Zealand completely white. The shooting of a harmless elderly Chinaman in a Wellington street by Lionel Terry during 1905 highlighted the agitation. Terry wrote to the Governor stating that the “yellow peril” was a danger and, as a protest, he deemed it advisable to put a Chinaman to death.
In Parliament total prohibition was favoured, but any Act doing so would not have received royal assent. Nor would the raising of the poll tax to £500 have been any more effective. The importation was financed by syndicates; hence the Chinese would have had to remain almost indefinitely before making repayment of such a large amount.
The anti-Chinese agitation faded during the war years, but when it was over there was a considerable increase in the number of Chinese seeking entry. This was one of the factors leading to the Immigration Restriction Act of 1920 which introduced the permit system to control the immigration of all aliens, but retained the poll tax on Chinese. Only a limited number of permits for the entry of Chinese for permanent residence were issued; in 1926 it was decided to issue no more. Temporary permits continued, but authority for permanent residents to bring in wives was no longer given. Under the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1927 the police could at any time enter the home of a Chinese, without a warrant, if the presence of opium was suspected. From 1930 Chinese students were allowed to enter New Zealand for education, while in 1934 the poll tax was temporarily waived. A change in this attitude to the Chinese came with the Labour Government in 1936. For the first time the old age pension was payable to those who were not British subjects and, from the beginning of the Social Security Scheme, benefits were available to all who contributed. And in 1944 the poll tax and the ships' tonnage limitations were legally ended.
In 1935 it was estimated that there were less than 100 Chinese families in New Zealand, but the Japanese invasion of China led many men in New Zealand to request the right to bring their families to New Zealand for safety. In 1939 permission was given for Chinese permanently resident to bring wives and children under 16 for a temporary visit of two years under a bond of £500. About 250 wives and 250 children entered, but by the time the two years was up the war with Japan made return impossible. Even when the war ended, return continued to be difficult and, eventually, 1,408 persons, mainly wives and children, were allowed to take up permanent residence. A more lenient and humane attitude has been adopted towards the Chinese since the war and it has been recognised that they should be able to live normal lives in this country. This has been assisted by the reluctance of the Communist Government in China to issue exit permits, and the fact that the Chinese have begun to regard New Zealand as their home, particularly by those who were born or educated in this country. Between 1884 and 1907, when Cabinet decided that naturalisation of Chinese should cease, there were about 17 naturalised each year. After considerable discussion, naturalisation recommenced in 1952. One of the difficulties in the past had been that adoption of British nationality did not mean the loss of Chinese nationality, for this is acquired by descent. Now encouragement is given to those Chinese whose outlook is generally that of a New Zealander, especially where there are children growing up as New Zealanders, to be naturalised, provided that at the same time they renounce their Chinese nationality. From its minimum in 1916 the number of Chinese began to rise again. In 1921 it was 3,266 (including 156 women), but fell again to 2,943 (363 women) in 1936. Up to this time the disparity in numbers between men and women had been most marked, but the change of policy in 1939 brought a better balance in the figures for 1945, 4,373 (1,254). The latest figures are those for 1956, 6,167 (2,676) and 1961, 7,697 (3,232). There were, in addition, 500 and 636 respectively of mixed blood. In the younger age groups there is probably a better balance between the sexes than the figures would indicate.
In their humble way the Chinese have been good citizens. They have committed few serious crimes; indeed, the crimes for which they are usually in the Courts, pakapoo, gaming, or opium smoking, are not ones they regard as serious. Industrious and intelligent as they usually are, they have not taken any prominent part in public life. Only on two occasions have they shown the way. In Taranaki, Chew Chong, the fungus exporter, established the first dairy factory, while in Otago Sew Hoy helped in the development of alluvial gold mining.
The first (Asiatic) Indians probably came to New Zealand in the early days of settlement as servants to the Anglo-Indians who retired to New Zealand. It was not, however, until the early years of this century that they came to the country in any number. While the main stream was attracted to Fiji as indentured labourers, a few came to New Zealand either directly or through Fiji. When the indenture system was suspended in 1917 and abolished in 1920, there were signs that the flow would be diverted to New Zealand. In 1919, for example, there were about a thousand inquiries from Indians wishing to come to New Zealand, and fear of the consequences of a flood of Indians led in part to the Immigration Restriction Act of 1920, which made an entry permit necessary.
The number of Indians resident in New Zealand grew from 15 at the 1911 census to 671 (including 49 females) in 1921 and 987 (177) in 1926, with a further increase in 1936 to 1,198 (234). During the late thirties many Indians returned home permanently, but at the same time others seem to have decided to make New Zealand their home. This was shown by the number who brought wives to New Zealand; in 1945 the census figure was 1,549 (423). The figures for 1961 are 4,027, but, of these, 690 are of mixed race, for the Indian has not had the same attitude to mixed marriages as the Chinese.
Most Indians resident in New Zealand are Gujarati Hindus from the Surat and Navsari areas of Bombay, though there are also a few Punjabi Sikhs who are Moslems. Originally peasant farmers, it is probable that they hoped to take up land in New Zealand, but the high price and the attitude of New Zealanders to their employment in skilled occupations forced them to hawk fruit and vegetables or to collect bottles. In the country they took up labouring work on the roads, in swamp drainage, or scrub cutting. Today a number are employed in market gardening and a few in manufacturing.
The Indian community has of recent years become a more stable and permanent part of New Zealand society. The sex ratio, especially in the young, is more evenly balanced. The main colonies are in Auckland and Wellington. Indians are not yet as assimilated as the Chinese, but the increasing numbers born and educated in New Zealand will find that a larger range of occupations will be open to them.
New Zealand's superior education system and the high wages ruling have proved attractions to the Pacific Islanders. Many have made the short journey to New Zealand either as temporary visitors or, increasingly in recent years, as permanent settlers. In the years prior to the Second World War the purity of the white race in New Zealand was a major consideration in legislation. The immigration Restriction Act of 1920 required the possession of a permit before any native or part native from the Islands was allowed to land in New Zealand. New Zealand's responsibilities and interests in the Pacific gradually made a somewhat less restrictive attitude essential, and arrangements were made for the British Consul in Tonga, the Administrator (later the High Commissioner) in Western Samoa, and the Resident in the Cook Islands to screen applicants who wished to come to New Zealand. Every effort was made to see that only those of good health and character and who were capable of earning a living and maintaining themselves according to European standards left their homeland.
In 1956 there were 8,103 Islanders in New Zealand, but the number is increasing rapidly and grew in 1961 to 14,340 (7,889 of full blood), of whom 6,481 were Samoans. Most have settled in Auckland, but Wellington also has a fair colony. The men are chiefly labourers, while the women are employed mainly in domestic or similar work. They are a gregarious, happy people with their own (Congregational) churches, finding that housing is often the most difficult problem of life in New Zealand.
Representatives of other races are also to be found in New Zealand's population. The most numerous of those not already mentioned are Hungarians, Swiss, Greeks, and the Lebanese and Syrians. The Jews should also be mentioned, but they are considered as a religious group.
No separate figures for those of Hungarian birth living in the country are obtainable before 1921. At that census there were 44, but in the 1961 census there were 1,025 registered as aliens.
Before the First World War a number of peasants settled at Tuatapere in Southland, where they took up dairying and potato growing, but they have now been assimilated. In 1956, after the uprising in Hungary, the Government decided to allow an entry of 1,000 of those who had fled the country. This raised the number from 378 in 1956 to 1,496 in 1961 and 1,025 in 1963.
There has long been a small Swiss colony in New Zealand. At the 1881 census there were 332 of Swiss birth; in 1901, 333; by 1921 there were 607, and in 1963, 703. The Swiss who have settled in New Zealand are to be found principally in two groups, either dairy farmers chiefly in Taranaki or as well trained and leading members of the hotel, restaurant, or hairdressing professions.
At the 1881 census there were 87 of Greek birth in New Zealand; by 1901 there were 123, and in 1956, 606. In 1963 1,130 Greeks were registered as aliens. Some, however, who give Rumania or Turkey as their birthplace are Greek. The major increase has taken place in recent years with the introduction of girls for domestic service, though some families were brought to New Zealand in return for their kindnesses to New Zealand soldiers during the Second World War.
It is not certain when the first immigrants from Syria and the Lebanon came to New Zealand, but in 1878 there were 74 males in this country, all of whom had been born in various parts of the Turkish Empire. By 1901 the Syrians and Lebanese numbered 240; in 1921, 707; and in 1945, 1,396. The latest figure for 1961 gives 503, and 554 as being of mixed blood. The tendency has been for these people both to marry Europeans and to consider themselves European in race.
The principal occupation is clothing manufacture, though the Lebanese were among the pioneer viti-culturalists in the area around Auckland.
by James Oakley Wilson, D.S.C., M.COM., A.L.A., Chief Librarian, General Assembly Library, Wellington.