FOREST PRACTICES AND POLICY

FORESTRY

by Alec Lindsay Poole, M.SC., B.FOR.SC., F.R.S.N.Z., Director-General of Forests, Wellington.

FOREST PRACTICES AND POLICY

Introduction

Forest practices and policy did not take root and develop to their present comparative strength in New Zealand until the formation, in 1920, of a separate Department, the State Forest Service, and the passing of the Forests Act 1921–22. Nevertheless, the way had been paved for these two important events from about the 1870s and a Forest Act was passed even as early as 1874. Long before the 1870s, timber had become an important commodity in the developing colony. It quickly acquired pride of place as the main building material, was used almost exclusively for fuel, for the fencing of farmlands, and, most important, provided a commodity for early overseas trade. For a brief period – in the early 1850s – it was the major export, thus assisting in no small measure the young colony. It was mainly the need to conserve and regulate the supplies of these important native timbers and, later, to supplement or replace them with plantation-grown timbers that led to the policy and administrative measures referred to above.

The timber needs of the country, a thriving wood utilisation industry, and forest policy and practice are now integrated to a marked extent. It was not always so, for in the early days of sparse settlement and ample forest, it was a long time before the Crown assumed adequate control over milling.

Wood Becomes a Basic Requirement

Banks, the naturalist who accompanied Captain Cook on his first voyage, collected botanical specimens from trees which later were to become important sources of timber. Strangely enough he neither collected, nor commented on, kauri, the timber which was soon to gain an outstanding reputation far beyond the bounds of New Zealand. By the end of the eighteenth century the British Navy was scouring the world in search of shipbuilding timbers. As the forests of Britain had been sadly depleted, ships travelled as far as New Zealand to get masts and spars and timber. The first was the brig Nancy which visited the Thames in 1794 and loaded a cargo of kahikatea (white pine) spars.

By 1810 kauri was known in Sydney as a superior ship-building timber and much of the early settlement around the Hokianga Harbour sprang from timber cutters engaged in this trade. It was an arduous one, not only because of the size of trees to be felled but also because of the primitive nature of the equipment used. The story of this early exploitation of the northern kauri forests is an epic one. The kauri trade both to overseas and to many of the southern ports of New Zealand increased apace. By 1853 exports had risen to 11,000,000 board feet – a considerable feat taking into account the small size of sailing vessels in which the timber had to be exported – and the trade formed 31 per cent of the total value of the exports from the country. Wool at that time contributed 22 per cent and dairy products only 4 per cent, no meat being exported. Five years later, however, the timber proportion of the export trade had fallen to less than 4 per cent. It never again formed more than a small part of the exports, even though the quantity at the height of the white pine trade for butter-box timber rose to close on 100,000,000 board feet. This amount declined to a negligible quantity as native forests were cleared for farming and timber supplies grew scarcer and more remote. Finally, in 1939, the export of native timbers was mainly prohibited. Only since the entry of wood from the exotic forest tree, radiata pine, in the form both of timber and of pulp and paper, have forest products once again figured prominently in the export market.

Early Forest Legislation

The treeless Canterbury Plains proved to be one of the most desirable places for early settlement, in spite of the lack of shelter for stock and of wood for building material. This lack, in fact, led to the first piece of forestry legislation in the country, a simple Planting of Forest Trees Ordinance which was passed by the Canterbury Provincial Government at the early date of 1858. In other districts, too, it was not long before attention was turned to the need for shelter trees and for local timber supplies as forests receded before the advance of agriculture. In 1871 a Forest Tree Planting Encouragement Act was therefore passed. Any province could proclaim this to be in operation.

These tree-planting Acts were only the forerunners to the first general Act, the New Zealand Forests Act, which quickly followed in 1874. The great conflagrations of timber-bearing forests and the difficulty of supervising and regulating logging and milling had led to widespread public criticism, hence the remarkable feature that only 34 years after the founding of the colony politicians were prepared to do something. The Act dealt principally with the regulation of sales of native timber, the basis of which was to be the setting aside of State forest. It also prescribed the formation of a separate State Forest Account and the appointment of a Minister of the Crown as Commissioner of State Forests. The following year a Captain Campbell-Walker of the highly organised Indian Forest Service was appointed the first Conservator of Forests. He reported to Government on the formation of a State Forest Department and read to the Otago Philosophical Society in 1876 what seems to have been the first forestry paper in New Zealand – “State Forestry; its Aims and Object”.

This well-intentioned and, one must note, well-designed start, did not survive the vicissitudes of adverse economic times and of antagonistic vested interests. Nevertheless, the germ was there and it sprouted again in 1885 in the form of the New Zealand State Forest Act. The scope of this Act was along previous lines but in addition it directed that the “Minister may establish a school of forestry and agriculture at Whangarei”, a prescription that was never finally acted upon. But at least the noted botanist, Thomas Kirk, was appointed Chief Conservator of the State Forests Branch of Crown Lands Department. Adverse economic conditions again checked the development of plans. Much of the lack of progress can also be attributed to the fact that the attempted formation and management of State forests remained under the general administration of the Lands Department which, apart from its survey responsibilities, was deeply engaged in forest and land clearance and in planning settlement for agriculture.

Various other events in the forestry field did achieve some success. In particular a timber conference called by the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, in 1896 paved the way for the commencement of afforestation with exotic forest trees by the Lands Department. In 1897 restricted planting began in Auckland, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and a Chief Forester was appointed. A Royal Commission on the Timber and Timber-building Industries in 1909 again focused attention on the rapid inroads into native timbers, and reported that indigenous forests would be depleted of their timber supplies in 40 years' time. The event of greatest moment, however, and the one which paved the way to most subsequent forest policy, was the inquiry and report of a Royal Commission on Forestry in 1913. Before commenting on this commission, it is necessary to say something about the forests of the country at the time.

Forest Remnants of the Country

A far-sighted decision, and one which greatly influenced what happened to native forest, had been made in 1841 when a Lands Claim Ordinance decreed that land purchased from the Maoris was to be the property of the Crown. This ensured that at some time or another most of New Zealand became Crown land and that settlement had at least some kind of orderly basis. The significance was great in a country that had about two-thirds of its surface covered with forest, much of it on rugged mountainous country, at the commencement of European settlement.

Non-forested land was soon released for pastoral purposes and forested land for agriculture when it was required or as it was milled over. By 1913, or even before then, most suitable agricultural soils had been released and the forest cleared or partially cleared from them, leaving a forest pattern, the bold outline of which is much as is seen today. Some clearing had, indeed, eaten too far into mountain forest, with the result that accelerated erosion was occurring. But the protective importance of these forests was soon recognised, and they were by and large withheld from settlement. In the Schedule to the State Forests Act 1885, the Commissioner of State Forests was to fix altitudes in all State forests above which no cutting (presumably clear-felling) was to be permitted. Forests were to be divided into mountain reserve and level reserve, and only timber marked by a Conservator was to be felled in the mountain reserves.

Apart from the solid nucleus of remaining native forest, there would have been considerable areas, probably totalling a few million acres, of forest cut over in the course of logging. Much of this had been burned over. To this could be added partially cleared land for settlement.

While legislation had provided the means for managing forests, administrative action had failed. One of the tragedies of European settlement of New Zealand was that logging and fire were allowed to decimate the great kauri forests, whereas simple management measures could easily have been introduced that would have ensured flourishing and permanently productive forests, yielding timber acknowledged to be of the world's best. The same thing can be said of many other forests, particularly beech forests in many localities and the rimu forests of the West Coast where logging methods produced only intractable bogs.

1913 Royal Commission and the Formation of a State Forest Service

With the knowledge that the native timber-producing trees were dwindling, and the growing realisation that administration had not been successful and that protection of the forest was essential, the 1913 Royal Commission on Forestry began its work. It was charged with the examination of existing indigenous forest land to determine which of it ought to be retained for purposes of soil protection, water conservation, and scenic purposes. Those areas not required for such purposes were to be examined for classification, for settlement, or sawmilling. Other questions were the administration of milling; the management of beech forest; and the desirability of wholly or partially prohibiting the export of white pine timber because it is excellent for making butter boxes.

Further, the Commission was to examine the probable future demand for timber and to what extent the State plantations should be supplemented and expanded. Other matters of inquiry concerned the question of State aid for private and local body planting, for forestry education, through legislation.

The findings of the Commission are of considerable moment. Although the First World War delayed action being taken, plans were implemented almost immediately afterwards. Under the able guidance of Sir Francis Dillon Bell, who was appointed the first Commissioner of State Forests, separate from the office of Minister of Lands, the kaleidoscopic events of the previous 100 years or more rapidly took on an orderly shape. Dillon Bell acted upon one of the main recommendations of the Royal Commission and in 1920 set up a separate Department, the State Forest Service. The new Department was placed in the hands of a professional forester who very quickly produced proposals for a New Zealand forest policy. A new Act followed, the Forests Act 1921–22, and the stage was then set for the development of forestry along the lines we witness today.

Staff Training

The original staff for the new Department was largely drawn from the Department of Lands. In 1923 schools of forestry were established at Auckland and Canterbury University Colleges. This action proved to be an error in view of the limited field of employment for foresters, and neither school was strong enough to survive the economic rigours of the depression years. Recruitment in general into the newly formed Service almost ceased in those years in spite of a great expansion of work. It was not until after the Second World War that a vigorous programme of expansion, of recruitment, and training of all staff, was undertaken. Professional foresters now gain a basic science degree in New Zealand and then take two years of forestry training at the Australian Forestry School, Canberra, or at a British school. Sub-professional or ranger training is conducted by the Service itself on the basis of a two-year consolidated course and three years' field work.

State Forests

State forests, the setting aside of which had been provided for under the first Forests Act in 1874, were now defined in a special section of the new Act. It stated that Crown land could be set aside as “permanent” or “provisional” State forest. The former was forest land which should come under permanent forest management, and the latter forest land suitable for settlement once cut over. State forest planning, including provisional, could be revoked only by resolution of Parliament. This astute piece of legislation, the doing of Sir Francis Dillon Bell, ensured that the reasons for changes of policy had to be very sound. It stopped indiscriminate clearing of forests and was a main factor in saving much remaining forest, both timber and protection.

In 1955 a survey of native forests based on aerial photography, was completed, together with ground checking and volume assessment. This gave accurate forest maps showing types, together with the approximate amount of standing timber.

Apart from forming State forests and regulating timber sales more closely, the Department began to expand the modest programme of afforestation undertaken hitherto. Between the years 1898 and 1922, 47,000 acres had been planted by the Lands Department and local bodies and private individuals had also undertaken some planting. The 1913 Royal Commission had inquired especially into the matter of afforestation and recommended an increase.

The exotic forests by 1913 amounted only to 65,000 acres.

Extensive Planting of Exotic Forests

The direct result of this recommendation was that a scheme was submitted in 1915 for planting 258,000 acres of the Kaingaroa Plains on the pumice plateau of central North Island where small-scale planting had taken place since the very beginning of the century. War prevented any action being taken but 1923 saw the commencement of what might be termed an era of extensive planting in many places. Between that year and 1936, 376,000 acres were planted by the State. The same period was also one of active planting by afforestation companies, most of which commenced as land development ventures. The basis of their enterprise was cheap land, submarginal to agriculture at the time. Many tens of thousands of acres were available for purchase in the pumice lands of the central North Island. They were not “available” to agriculture because cobalt deficiency caused stock disease. Radiata pine was the crop chosen because of the ease with which it could be raised, and handled, and the speed with which it grew. Outside of the pumice lands, the waste gumlands of North Auckland and the scrub-covered Moutere soils of Nelson were the main centres of planting, both by companies and by the State. During this same period of State activity, 1923–36, companies planted 297,000 acres, nearly all of it in radiata pine.

The establishment of this large exotic estate, the bulk of it in little more than a 10-year period, meant that adequate tending was not carried out and many of the principles of forestry were flouted. Some of the problems confronting foresters in the use of these forests today arise from these omissions. On the credit side, however, it can be said that sufficiently large areas of new species were established for large sales to be made and large logging and utilisation units to be formed. The small range of timbers has also enabled them to become quickly established in the trade.

AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF EXOTIC FORESTS (1964)
(Acres)
Tree State Forest Private, Company, and Communal Total
Radiata pine 276,000 430,000 706,000
Ponderosa pine 70,000 14,000 84,000
Corsican pine 69,000 4,000 73,000
Douglas fir 58,000 8,000 66,000
Others and mixtures 91,000 113,000 204,000
Total 564,000 569,000 1,133,000

Administration by a Separate Forest Service

Forty years of administration by a separate Forest Service has seen forestry well established and future wood supplies sufficient for domestic needs, with an assured surplus for export for some time to come. Wood utilisation industries are buoyant, and the recent development of pulp and paper production holds promise of broadening the country's export economy.

During that period, a revised Act, the Forests Act of 1949, has been passed and the name of the Department changed to the New Zealand Forest Service. The scope of activities of the Service has been widened considerably. In particular, provisions for rural fire control have been greatly strengthened and provided for in a separate Act, the Forest and Rural Fires Act of 1947, administered by the Service; and noxious animal control has been transferred from the Department of Internal Affairs to the Service. Provisions for control have been made also under a separate Act, the Noxious Animals Act of 1956.

This period had also seen the vindication of a forest policy which was implicit in the passing of the first Forest Acts. The broad basis of this policy has been the conservation of indigenous forests for local timber supplies, as well as for the prevention of soil erosion and the regulation of water flow, and the creation of exotic forests to assure future wood supplies.

In this latter field, as has been noted, marked success has been achieved. An exotic forest estate has been established which is more than sufficient for immediate domestic wood supplies. Some of the surplus has been used to build an export trade of sawn timber and of pulp and paper, with radiata pine the main log supply. This species now provides more than half the rough sawn timber of the country and, as indigenous supplies dwindle, will undoubtedly provide the bulk of it. Acceptance of the timber has by no means been straightforward or easy to achieve. In many of its properties it is the antithesis of native timbers. The wood is almost entirely sap, in contrast to the high proportion of durable heart provided from indigenous logs. As building authorities have rightly been unwilling to accept this non-durable sap timber, a sizable timber-preservation industry has grown up. On a per capita basis it is by far the largest preservation industry in the world.

Timber from New Zealand grown Douglas fir is becoming increasingly available as forests age. No difficulties present themselves in marketing this, for it takes the place of imported Douglas fir brought in mainly for building purposes. In time it should become one of the major New Zealand timbers. Other exotic trees supply minor quantities of sawn logs. The only uses for which these exotic timbers are not suitable are for joinery and furniture. The superior grade timber of native trees and some imported timbers are preferred for these purposes.

Radiata pine has proved outstanding in so far as it produces very high-quality mechanical and chemical pulp, also kraft papers, newsprint, and cardboards. These products have thus been able to provide quickly most domestic needs, and some have also competed successfully in overseas markets. It would seem that the prospects for expansion in these lines are far in excess of the potential raw material supplies available from present exotic forests.

The policy of indigenous forest conservation has been successful for the reason that a reservation has been achieved of what might be considered a minimum protection forest estate only. There is little doubt that in many areas clearance of protection forest has proceeded much too far; at some time, therefore, there must be a reversal of the process. Indeed, this is already happening on soils derived from highly erodible shattered Tertiary rocks in the catchment of the Waipaoa River, Poverty Bay. Conservation measures, including the planting of trees and an afforestation scheme, are under way there to prevent excessive aggradation of the river bed. Unfortunately, introduced wild mammals are in many places reducing the effectiveness of protection forests. A number of species, including particularly the red deer of Europe and the opossum of Australia, have become thoroughly acclimatised and are now superimposed on what was a vegetation free from browsing animals. They, together with domestic animals, now running wild, have everywhere altered native forest and in a few cases have destroyed it.

The policy of conserving indigenous timbers has not been so successful. Some 30,000 acres of native timber-bearing forest are cut over annually. Partly because of price control of rough-sawn timber, which has operated since 1936, native timbers have not been available for the high-quality uses for which they are so eminently suited. Most are still used for general building purposes, needs now adequately filled by exotic timbers. There is also a reluctance by Government to close mills before they have completely cut out resources. Nor has the introduction of measures to secure the second crop of timber trees, once the forest has been cut over, been pursued as vigorously as it should have been. Admittedly the regeneration of some native timber trees is very difficult and research must point the way to achieving this. On the other hand, some species, such as the southern beeches and kauri regenerate readily in the right conditions. Management has been introduced into these forests but the area treated forms only a fraction of that cut over annually.

by Alec Lindsay Poole, M.SC., B.FOR.SC., F.R.S.N.Z., Director-General of Forests, Wellington.

  • Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives: Annual Reports (1896–1918), Department of Lands and Survey (C. 1 of each year until 1905, C. 1B, 1906–18)
  • Annual Reports (1919–20), C. 1B (1906–18); Annual Reports (1919–20), Forestry Department (C. 3, 1920); Annual Report (1917–48), State Forest Service (C. 3, 1917 and subsequent years); Report of Royal Commission on Forestry (C. 12, 1913);
  • National Forest Survey of New Zealand, 1955, Vol. I (1957).

FORESTRY 23-Apr-09 Alec Lindsay Poole, M.SC., B.FOR.SC., F.R.S.N.Z., Director-General of Forests, Wellington.